Exploring the Antecedents of Laptop Use Among School Teachers
Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract
Global implementation of technology integration into daily classroom instruction has transformed the conventional educational system around the world. One of the current instructional technology tools introduced in classrooms is the laptop. School teachers around the globe are incorporating laptops into their daily lessons. However, results from past studies have suggested that there are school teachers who are still not proficient in the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Therefore, it is pertinent to investigate the factors that can affect school teacher’s laptop instructional use. This paper is based on a review of 30 studies related to the antecedents of instructional use among school teachers. The literature revealed that the antecedents of laptop instructional use among school teachers are namely gender, laptop competence, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitude, administrator support, and technology support. Lastly, this paper provides a conceptual framework of the antecedents of laptop instructional use based on the literature review and the Technology Acceptance Model.
1. Introduction
Governments around the globe intend to transform its educational system to produce individuals who are critical and capable as decision makers to meet the challenges of the technological world. In line with this, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been integrated into the education system. According to Shelly, Cashman, Gunter, and Gunter (2004, p. 6.05), integration is defined as “…bringing different parts together to combine into a whole.” Hence, technology integration is the combination of every technology parts (software and hardware), together with each subject-related area of curriculum to improve learning (Shelly et al., 2004). According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2003), technology integration is defined as:
[T]he incorporation of technology resources and technology-based practices into the daily routines, work, and management of schools. Technology resources are computers and specialised software, network-based communication systems, and other equipment and infrastructure. Practices include collaborative work and communication, Internet-based research, remote access to instrumentation, network-based transmission and retrieval of data, and other methods.
(p. 1)
According to Baylor and Ritchie (2002), technology integration refers to how visibly the technology is blended into the teaching and learning process, and it is used to convey lessons in ways not easily done using the traditional method. Albirini (2004) supports by stating that global implementation of ICT into education have been introduced to revolutionise the current conservative educational system.
Literature reviews on technology infusion in education system revealed several advantages of incorporating technology into teaching and learning process (Abdulaziz, 2005). Kuo (2005) supported this statement by affirming that technology allows educators to provide more and better educational opportunities to the learners. Rutledge, Duran, and Carroll-Miranda (2007) noted that through the technology infusion, the educators were able to make the traditional instruction experiences more detailed and accurate for the learners as one of the educators in their research described that the outcome of teaching and learning with technology assisted the learners towards an advanced level of intellectual complexity.
Recognising the importance of technology integration in the education system, the educational authorities in most developing countries have moved forward to introduce laptop initiative in schools to promote the wider use of ICT. Governments have responded to the ICT challenge to improve teaching and learning environment by using one of the current instructional technology devices which is the laptop. In the quest to integrate ICT into the education system, educational authorities in the New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States, and Malaysia (Cowie and Jones, 2005; Cunningham, Kerr, McEune, Smith, and Harris, 2004; Rutledge et al., 2007; Pillay and Thomas, 2004) have moved to provide laptops to promote teachers’ use of technology. According to Falba, Grove, Anderson and Putney (2001, p. 2), “laptops are powerful instructional tools for student learning”. Hence, the laptop scheme is a significant move to take full advantage of ICT in the teaching and learning process.
2. Research Problem and Purpose
Technology transforms and creates innovative approaches in the instructional process (Chen, 2007). According to Shelly et al. (2004), technology is tremendously valuable in the teaching and learning process when it is used properly. School teachers around the globe are incorporating laptops into their teaching and learning process. On the contrary, results from past studies have revealed that there are teachers who are still not proficient in utilising the ICT tools. For that reason, it is pertinent to explore the antecedents that influence the school teacher’s laptop instructional use. Additionally, this paper attempts to provide a conceptual framework of the antecedents of laptop instructional use among the school teachers.
3. Method
A comprehensive search of the literature was carried out by the researchers 14 months to accumulate the interrelated sources, information and data. This paper is based on a review of 30 studies related to the antecedents of instructional use among the school teachers. All articles were selected from convincing sources mainly from journals, reports, and proceedings. The foremost focus of these articles is on the possible determinants of laptop use among school teachers. This paper reviews literatures from areas that are directly and indirectly related to the variables of interest in this study.
4. Discussion
4.1 Antecedents of Laptop Use
Based on the analysis of past and present research findings, several factors are related to laptop use among the teachers. The literature revealed that the antecedents of laptop instructional use among school teachers are namely gender, laptop competence, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitude, administrator support, and technology support.
Gender
Demographic characteristics such as gender has caught the attention of many researchers and has been the subject of numerous studies in relation to technology use (Fan and Li, 2005; Kay, 2006; Megat Aman Zahiri Megat Zakaria, Baharudin Aris, and Jamalludin Harun, 2007; Wong and Atan, 2007; Wong et al., 2005).
A research done by Sabariah Sharif and Khaziyati Osman (2005) to identify the ICT literacy competency among teachers depicted that significant differences exists between the male and female teachers in terms of their level of ICT competency. Research conducted by Thomas (2004) provides evidence that males are more conscious of the new instructional technologies than do females.
On the other hand, Kay (2006) carried out a survey among 52 pre-service teachers from a variety of different cultural backgrounds. The sample consisted of 22 male and 30 female pre-service teachers. One of the aims of the study was to investigate the impact of an integrated laptop programme on gender differences in computer use. The results show that males and females did not vary before or after the eight-month laptop programme regarding the use of computer in all constructs accessed. Megat Aman Zahiri Megat Zakaria et al., (2007) affirmed Kay’s (2006) results that there is no significant difference present between the mean scores of ICT skills among the males and females.
Briefly, literature review has shown that the gender gap concern is inconsistent and contradicting. The emergence of technology in several studies showed that gender had an influence on the use of instructional technologies (Sabariah Sharif and Khaziyati Osman, 2005; Thomas, 2004). Thus, gender can be considered as one of the antecedents of technology use among the school teachers.
Laptop Competence
According to Baylor and Ritchie (2002), educators must attain and maintain an assured degree of technological competence to make instructional action in the education system more effective. Technological competence allows them to become more efficient educators in dealing with their daily tasks.
A research was carried out by Sabariah Sharif and Khaziyati Osman in 2005 to discover the literacy of ICT competency and the needs towards skills and knowledge of ICT to integrate technology into curriculum among the teachers. The findings based on 679 respondents showed that there was a significant difference in term of educator’s ICT literacy competency to integrate technology.
According to Sime and Priestley (2005), ICT use could be identified through the individual needs such as their competence with ICT; home access; and interest in using ICT. In Sime and Priestley study, it was proven that one of the human factors that affect the successful use of ICT in the classroom is the teachers’ ICT competence. Case studies were carried out by Mooij and Smeets (2001) in 10 Dutch secondary schools to investigate the implementation of ICT and its support within the secondary schools. They found those teachers’ competence and confidence in their skills act as the main factor that influences their willingness to integrate technology into the teaching and learning process. They furthermore claimed that educator’s lack of knowledge cause a serious hindrance to integrate ICT into secondary schools.
Juanna Risah Sa’ari, Wong, and Samsilah Roslan (2005) conducted a survey among 160 educators in three districts of Malacca to identify teachers’ attitudes and perceived competence toward Information Technology (IT). The results of the data collection indicated that the majority of teachers possessed a moderate level of IT competence. It was reported by Juanna Risah Sa’ari et al. (2005) that there was significant difference between perceived competent teachers and the incompetent teachers. The educators who perceived themselves as competent reported higher levels of attitudes towards the integration of technology compared to the incompetent teachers.
Based on the literature review, there is a difference in terms of ICT literacy competency to integrate technology among the teachers (Sabariah Sharif and Khaziyati Osman, 2005). It was found that one of the important factors that determine the technology use in the teaching and learning process is the technology competence (Mooij and Smeets, 2001; Sime and Priestley, 2005). However, technology competence also mediates through attitude of the teachers to integrate technology into the education system (Juanna Risah Sa’ari et al., 2005).
Perceived Ease of Use
Perceived ease of use of technology has been a focus of many researches (Chau, 1996; Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw, 1989; Gardner and Amoroso, 2004; Schillewaert, Ahearne, Frambach, and Moenaert, 2000). Perceived ease of use is the level to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of physical and mental attempt (Gardner and Amoroso, 2004).
Davis et al. (1989) identified perceived ease of use as one of the main antecedents of technology usage. According to Davis et al. (1989), perceived ease of use directly and indirectly influences technology usage through its effect on perceived usefulness. Likewise, Chau (1996) stated that perceived ease of use affects usefulness of a system. According to Chau (1996), technology’s ease of use affects the individuals’ assessment on the usefulness of the technology.
Correspondingly, a further study was carried out by Ma, Andersson and Streith (2005) in an attempt to investigate teachers’ computer technology acceptance among the student educators. Data were collected from 84 student teachers ranging from age 19 to 30 (34%), 31 to 40 (40%) and over 41 (26%). These student teachers are first year students registered in the education programme at a university of Sweden. It also reported that student teachers’ perceived ease of use did not directly influence their intention to use the computer; however it mediated the teachers’ perceived usefulness to use the computer.
On the other hand, Malhotra and Galletta (1999) stated that attitude may have a greater or higher influence toward the use of new technology system than perceived ease of use. According to Davis et al. (1989), attitude act as a mediating variable between perceived ease of use and behavioural intention to use. Behavioural intentions to use signify a major determinant of the users’ behaviour and significantly correlate with the system usage (Davis et al., 1989).
In summary, the study found perceived ease of use to be one of the determinants of teachers’ computer technology use but it mediate through perceived usefulness (Chau, 1996; Davis et al., 1989; Ma et al., 2005) and attitude (Davis et al., 1989; Malhotra and Galletta, 1999) of the teachers. Hence, perceived ease of use of technology acts as an important factor that influences the technology usage via other factors.
Perceived Usefulness
Perceived usefulness has been the subject of numerous studies in relation to technology use (Davis et al., 1989; Gardner and Amoroso, 2004; Igbaria, Zinatelli, Cragg, and Cavaye, 1997; Schillewaert et al., 2000; Szajna, 1994; Teo, Lee, and Chai, 2007). According to Gardner and Amoroso (2004), perceived usefulness is the level to which a person believes that using a particular system would improve his or her performance.
According to Davis et al. (1989), relationship between perceived usefulness and system usage is stronger and more constant than other determinants. Davis (1989) stated:
Among the many variables that may influence system use, previous research suggests two determinants that are especially important. First, people tend to use or not use an application to the extent they believe it will help them perform their job better. We refer to this first variable as the perceived usefulness of IT technology. Second, even if potential users believe that a given application is useful, they may, at the same time, believe that the systems is too hard to use and that the performance benefits of usage are outweighed by the effort of using the application. That is, in addition to usefulness, usage is theorised to be influenced by the perceived ease of use.
(p. 320)
A most recent study was conducted by Teo et al. (2007) to examine the preservice teachers’ attitudes towards the use of computers. This research was carried out among the 239 preservice educators enrolled in the National Institute of Education in Singapore. A questionnaire was used to collect the data from the participants regarding their attitudes towards the computer usage. Teo et al. (2007) found that the teachers’ perceived usefulness significantly determine the computer attitude of the teachers. This study supports the previous research done by Chau and Hu (2001) where perceived usefulness was found as the significant factor of determining attitude and behavioural intention.
In essence, usage of a technology system is theorised to be influenced by the perceived ease of use in addition to perceived usefulness of a system (Davis et al., 1989). Moreover, studies by Teo et al. (2007) and Chau and Hu (2001) found perceived usefulness as the key factor in determining the attitude. Hence, their findings support Davis et al.’s (1989) theory.
Attitude
Attitude is defined as a positive or a negative feeling of a person to perform a specific behavior (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Attitude refers to the mixture of belief, thoughts and feeling of teachers to use the technology in a favourable or unfavourable way. According to Samuel and Zaitun Abu Bakar (2006), negative attitudes of the educators can act as a “stumbling block” towards greater utilisation of ICT resources in the teaching and learning process. Conversely, Kersaint, Horton, Stohl, and Garofalo (2003) asserted that educators who boast positive attitudes toward ICT feel more contented to use technology and regularly incorporate it into their teaching and learning process.
The success of any initiatives to integrate technology in an educational system depends strongly upon the attitudes and support of the educators’ involved (Teo et al., 2007). According to Sime and Priestley (2005), ICT use could be recognised by taking into account the individual needs and thus, it was established that perceived attitudes towards ICT use as one of the human factors that affect the successful use of ICT in the teaching and learning practices.
Enhancing educators’ attitude toward computers is one of the most important challenges for the successful use of technology (Baylor and Ritchie, 2002). Baylor and Ritchie (2002) stated that regardless of the quantity of technology or its complexity, the technology will not be used unless the individual has the skills, knowledge, and attitudes to instil the technology into the curriculum.
Based on the literature review, attitude is found as one of the main determinants to incorporate technology into teaching practice environment (Baylor and Ritchie, 2002; Krysa, 1998; Sime and Priestley, 2005; Teo et al., 2007). Therefore, a teacher should possess a positive attitude prior to the integration of laptop in their teaching and learning process.
Administrator Support
According to Baylor and Ritchie (2002), administrators’ support plays an essential role in improving the educators’ willingness to use technology. Review on Laptops for Teachers (TELA) scheme that was conducted in New Zealand reported that the teachers joined the programme due to the encouragement of the principal and also other staff (Cowie and Jones, 2005). Cowie and Jones stated that guidance from a head of department is very important in encouraging the sharing and development of electronic lesson materials to encourage laptop use for the specific subject in teaching process. Thus, it indicates that school administrator is critical in providing the force, encouragement and conditions to enhance the use of laptop in teaching profession.
Another study was conducted by Kariuki (2004) among 145 preservice teachers to investigate the antecedents that influence the use of laptops, as there was a minimal use of laptops by the teachers during the practicum. From the study, it was found that the teachers use the laptops more often in their teaching and learning process if they perceived a ‘positive welcoming atmosphere’ in the school despite of how well the equipped are provided. It was reported that the attitudes of the school administrators act as one of the major determinant of the preservice teachers to use the laptop in the teaching and learning activities during their practicum.
In a study conducted by Samuel and Zaitun Abu Bakar (2006) at Kuala Langat District showed poor support from the administrators as two thirds of the teachers have negative experiences regarding the support of the principal to use ICT in the teaching and learning process. In an interview session, one of teachers mentioned, “My headmaster is more concerned about the examination results rather than ICT integration”, and another respondent commented, “My principal all the time talks about better grades in the school assembly. He doesn’t repair computers which are out-of-order” (Samuel and Zaitun Abu Bakar, 2006, p.10). Hence, a large level of success in integrating ICT into teaching and learning process is dependent on the support provided by the principal of the school (Samuel and Zaitun Abu Bakar, 2006).
As a summary, administrators in school can act as mediators to integrate technology into the educational system by playing a key role in helping the teachers to use laptops in teaching and learning process. Therefore, administrator support is one of the factors that determine the use of technology (Baylor and Ritchie, 2002; Cowie and Jones, 2005; Kariuki, 2004; Samuel and Zaitun Abu Bakar, 2006) among the school teachers.
Technology Support
Technology support positively has an impact on educators’ own uses of technology, and their integration of technology into the teaching and learning process (Dexter, Seashore, and Anderson, 2003).
Numerous problems related to technology infusion occur among the teachers due the “lack of technical knowledge of maintaining the functionality of the laptops” (Rutledge et al., 2007, p. 357). In the investigation of a three years laptop initiative, Rutledge et al. (2007) found that the educators were often confused by the technical features of using the laptop for teaching and learning process.
According to Cowie and Jones (2005), with the technology support, the teachers are able to access school network, Internet, and laptop accessories (printer, digital camera, data projector, large TV screen, scanner, and video camera). They also found that as the beginners of laptop use, the teachers need technical support to assist them in the teaching and learning process when they face constraints.
The aforementioned studies have shown clearly that technology support has an impact in enhancing the use of laptop among teachers (Cowie and Jones, 2005; Dexter et al., 2003; Rutledge et al., 2007). Therefore, technology support is required in schools to facilitate the educators to use the laptop effectively in their teaching practices.
4.2 Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of the antecedents of laptop instructional use (Figure 1) was developed based on the literature review and Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis et al., 1989). From previous studies examining the use of technology, seven factors namely gender, laptop competence, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitude, administrator support, and technology support are found to be one of the most important antecedents of laptop use among the school teachers.
Conclusion
This paper offered a review of previous and recent studies examining the antecedents of laptop instructional use among the school teachers. Based on the review of literature, seven pertinent factors that could possibly influence the use of laptops among educators were revealed namely gender, laptop competence, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitude, administrator support, and technology support. Finally, it provided a conceptual framework of the antecedents of laptop instructional use based on the literature review and the TAM. As a conclusion, the success of integrating laptop instructional use among school teachers depends on more than one antecedent and it can act as a mediator between the variables as well. Future studies on the predictors of laptop use in the teaching and learning process among teachers should be done to further confirm the proposed conceptual framework.
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